Introduction

Among the Surma people of Ethiopia, the women pierce their lower lips and then stretch the skin to insert large plates as a mark of beauty. Over time, these plates can be as large as several inches in diameter. Upon seeing such a practice, most Americans would have to look away or gasp in disbelief. One might even consider this people to be “primitive” or “uncivilized.” As odd as this beautification process might sound to us, there are some practices that are even more bizarre. The details are the stuff of horror movies. This group has an unusual use for their dead. Instead of stretching their lower lips, these people beautify themselves by making small holes in the surface of the skin and to force tissue from the dead into their bodies. Large sheets of skin are also cut away from the inner thighs of corpses for the same purpose. After the skin has been ritually purified, the people adorn their bodies with it in an effort to maintain beauty and status. Absolutely bizarre, you might think. “Where is this ghastly, barbaric culture?” You have probably seen them on TV. It is possible that you could meet someone from this group. Oh, the horror! If you haven't guessed, I will end the suspense. You, reader, are probably part of the this barbaric culture. You see, synthetics are not the only materials used in “plastic” surgery. Surma women would probably think it odd that Americans harvest tissue from cadavers to beautify themselves. Think about that the next time you see the full lips of some American beauty. Yes, Mr. Heston. Soylent Green is people... ⁱ

The point of this little ruse was to raise the reader's awareness to one simple but often overlooked fact: Cultures vary and we need to be careful about reading ourselves into the writings of another people. The cultures of the Bible are greatly different than our own. “There are many ways to describe the differences. The world of the Bible, for example, is ancient; our world is modern. It is an Eastern world; ours is Western... It is agricultural; ours is industrial. Biblical people think of their goods and resources as limited. We consider ours renewable. They think of themselves as households; we think of ourselves as individuals... Their favorite genre of literature is story; ours is history.” ⁱⁱ These are fundamental differences that shape not only how we view ourselves, but also the world around us. Of course there are commonalities. The people we read about are not completely incomprehensible to us. However, when we are ignorant of our differences, we tend to fill in the blanks with our cultural knowledge. This can lead to serious misunderstanding.

Many of the differences mentioned above are covered in two previous articles: A Socio-Cultural Perspective On Elements of New Testament Eschatology ⁱⁱⁱ and Cultural Relativity and the Evil Eye. ^iv The current article is a continuation of those studies. Let me briefly summarize my approach:

“A socio-cultural perspective... is interested in explaining patterns of behavior and thought within the proper system of inherited conceptions. It's thinking inside the box, culture as an integrated whole. Language and other behaviors derive meaning from social systems. As such, to understand the words of Jesus and the early Christian message, we must understand the 'social facts' that precede them. Therefore, the meaning of a symbol (e.g., a word, an artifact, a behavior) must be understood by its relationship to other symbols within this historically transmitted framework.” ^v

We often hear, “How would the original audience have understood this?” The social sciences and anthropology ^vi help answer these questions. They are an aid for doing Theology, not a replacement of it. The purpose of this approach is to avoid two isms: ethnocentrism and anachronism. An ethnocentric reading assumes values and beliefs that would be foreign to the original culture – or fails to recognize the cultural values assumed by the text. For example, in Judges 3 we find a character named Ehud. After we are given the usual status markers, the name of his father and his tribe, we also receive another tidbit of information. He is a left-handed man. This not unusual among his tribe, but why is this important to the story? Pardon my lewdness here, but the left hand was reserved for toilet duty. In the Aja language of Benin, West Africa, what we call the “left hand” would translate to something like “push the excrement away hand.” Ehud, the left-handed assassin, stabs King Eglon while in the “restroom” (v. 24). We are told that “excrement” comes out of the wound. What we have here in Judges 3 is an example of, quit literally, ancient bathroom humor – an appropriate fate for someone the Israelites viewed as excrement. ^vii Most of us miss the humor due to the first ism. The second ism is anachronism. This refers to bad chronology, something out of time. For example, reading Dante's Inferno back into a New Testament text – a subject we'll cover in more detail.

The aim of this piece is to apply the method summarized above to the ancient underworld. In doing so, I will attempt to familiarize the reader with some of the cultural knowledge shared by people in the first century. The intention of this exercise is not to impugn the scripture by comparing it with other literature, lest someone should get that feeling before reaching the conclusion, but to uphold its integrity by peeling back the layers of our own myths. I want to replace our “cultural knowledge” with theirs. I will be painting with some pretty broad strokes at times. Just like today, there were different notions of the afterlife in antiquity – everything from nothingness to various forms of reincarnation. ^viii So when the reader comes across a phrase like the “Greek underworld,” “Hebrew underworld,” or “the concept of...” please realize that this is not intended to encompass every person. It is a qualitative description in that the features under consideration generally conform to one or the other.

Sheol in Biblical Literature

To begin, I would like to briefly summarize Sheol as it is appears in the Old Testament. In some respects, the picture of the underworld contained in the Hebrew Bible, however nebulous, was unique among contemporary cultures. ^ix John H. Walton notes that, “The term [Sheol] has no known antecedent in other cultures or religions of the ancient world...” ^x Walton also provides a useful summary that we will refer to often as we proceed:

1. Those in Sheol were viewed as separated from God.

2. Sheol is never referred to as the abode of the wicked alone.

3. While Sheol is never identified as the place where all go, the burden of proof rests on those who suggest that there was an alternative.

4. Sheol is a place of negation: no possessions, memory, knowledge, joy

5. It is not viewed as a place where judgment or punishment takes place, though it is considered an act of God's judgment to be sent there rather than remaining alive. Thus, it is inaccurate to translate sheol as “hell,” as the latter is by definition a place of punishment.

6. There is no reference suggesting varying compartments in Sheol. “Deepest” Sheol (e.g., Deut. 32:22) refers to its location (“beneath”) rather than a lower compartment. ^xi

I want highlight the last two points: Sheol was not a place of judgment or punishment. There is no reference to varying compartments. Please keep these in mind. This view is markedly different from our current notions of the afterlife, or at least some of the more popular ideas that have been passed down to us. Not only do we have division and punishment, there is also a nearly omnipotent and omnipresent demon who torments both the dead and the living.

Our Myths

One of my favorite movies is O, Brother Where Art Thou? At one point in the film, the character Pete ponders the appearance of the devil. His associate, Ulysses Everett McGill, is always ready to offer an opinion:

Well of course there's all manner of lesser imps 'n demons, Pete, but the Great Satan hisself is red and scaly with a bifurcated tail and carries a hayfork --

Most of us are familiar with the image. Harvey Comics had a character named Hot Stuff, a little devil who looked much like the description above – with addition of diapers. We find this icon in everything from Halloween costumes to product logos. It reflect beliefs that have been passed down for generations. It is part of our culture... and it's not always cute or funny.

One does not need direct knowledge of Dante or Milton to have been touched by their influence. Dante's most famous work, Divine Comedy, combined Biblical theology with classical mythology – more of the latter. We owe much to his tales of boiling pitch, a river of boiling blood and the like. Such imagery has been the stuff of terrifying sermons. When Jonathan Edwards preached on hell, colonial Americans would sometimes faint with fright:

“To help your conception, imagine yourself to be cast into a fiery oven, all of a glowing heat, or into the midst of a blowing brick-kiln, or of a great furnace, where your pain would be as much greater than that occasioned by accidentally touching a coal of fire, as the heat is greater. Imagine also that your body were to lie there for a quarter of an hour, full of fire, as full within and without as a bright coal of fire, all the while full of quick sense; what horror would you feel at the entrance of such a furnace! And how long would that quarter of an hour seem to you!... And how much greater would be the effect, if you knew you must endure it for a whole year, and how vastly greater still if you knew you must endure it for a thousand years! O then, how would your heart sink, if you thought, if you knew, that you must bear it forever and ever!... That after millions of ages, your torment would be no nearer to an end, than it ever was; and that you never, never should be delivered! But your torment in Hell will be immeasurably greater than this illustration represents.” ^xii

Years later, Charles H. Surgeon would speak to a London audience:

“Thine heart beating high with fever, thy pulse rattling at an enormous rate in agony, thy limbs crackling like the martyrs in the fire and yet unburnt, thyself put in a vessel of hot oil, pained yet coming out undestroyed, all thy veins becoming a road for the hot feet of pain to travel on, every nerve a string on which the devil shall ever play his diabolical tune.” ^xiii

And it's just a short step from here to Clive Barker... Recall the summary of Sheol above. Is this a consistent picture? How did we get from Sheol to here? The history is long, but there is an unbroken chain that began well before these men. For our purposes, the past and the present converge in the Hellenistic Age. This age also coincides with what is known as the Intertestamental Period, when many of the pseudepigrapha and deuterocanonical books were written. Great changes took place during this time through cultural diffusion. This is the process by which a cultural trait, material object, idea, or behavior pattern is spread from one society to another. A modern example might be a McDonald's restaurant in Japan. Diffusion also occurs when people of different cultures live in close proximity. They intermarry, exchange goods, ideas, etc. Israel was often warned about absorbing the culture of those around them:

2 Kings 17:6-12 ...the king of Assyria captured Samaria and deported the people of Israel to Assyria... This happened because the Israelites sinned against the LORD their God, who brought them up from the land of Egypt and freed them from the power of Pharaoh king of Egypt. They worshiped other gods; they observed the practices of the nations whom the LORD had driven out from before Israel, and followed the example of the kings of Israel. The Israelites said things about the LORD their God that were not right. They built high places in all their cities, from the watchtower to the fortress. They set up sacred pillars and Asherah poles on every high hill and under every green tree. They burned incense on all the high places just like the nations whom the LORD had driven away from before them. Their evil practices made the LORD angry. They worshiped the disgusting idols in blatant disregard of the LORD's command. (NET)

The Israelites had incorporated the traits of surrounding people into their own practices, specifically religious practices. This is cultural diffusion. In Jewish literature of the Hellenistic Age (and beyond) the Hebrew underworld was embellished with elements of the dominant Greek culture. Its influence is even evident in the Septuagint in that Hades, Tartarus and Titans ^xiv all make an appearance. Sheol is replaced by Hades not only in translation, but to a large degree in thought as well. What was once vague and shadowy finds definition in this period.

Greek in First Century Palestine

Greek influence even in orthodox Palestinian Judaism has been recognized for some time. Decades ago, C.H. Dodd remarked that “modified Greek conceptions have been taken up and naturalized within Judaism” and “Rabbinic or orthodox Palestinian Judaism of the first Christian century was not nearly so much a closed system as it has been thought to have been.” ^xv Rabban Simeon b. Gamaliel notes:

“There were a thousand young men in my father's house, 500 of them studied the Law, while the other 500 studied Greek Wisdom.” ^xvi

His father was Gamaliel II who was made Nasi ^xvii in approximately 80 AD. He was also the grandson of Paul's famous teacher mentioned in Acts 22:3. It is quite possible that Paul himself had a similar education. In fact, we do have evidence in the New Testament to suggest this. In Paul's sermon on Mars Hill, he explains the “unknown god” to his audience:

From one man he made every nation of the human race to inhabit the entire earth, determining their set times and the fixed limits of the places where they would live, so that they would search for God and perhaps grope around for him and find him, though he is not far from each one of us. For in him we live and move about and exist, as even some of your own poets have said, 'For we too are his offspring.' So since we are God's offspring, we should not think the deity is like gold or silver or stone, an image made by human skill and imagination. (NET)

The first portion of verse 28, is a quote from Epimenides (ca. 600 BC). In his poem Cretica, Minos says to Zeus:

They fashioned a tomb for you, O holy and high one—
The Cretans,always liars, evil beasts, idle bellies!
But you are not dead: you live and abide forever,
For in you welive and move and have our being. ^xviii

Keener notes, “The quote from the Greek poet Epimenides (v. 28) appears in Jewish anthologies of proof texts useful for showing pagans the truth about God, and Paul may have learned it from such a text.” ^xix

The second portion of verse 28 is from the Phaenomena of Aratus (ca. 315-240 BC):

Let us begin with Zeus, whom men never leave unmentioned.
For indeed every street, every assembly of people is full of Zeus.
Even the sea and harbor are full [of him].
In every way, we are indebted to Zeus.
For we are indeed his offspring... ^xx

This scene in Acts is an interesting study, but for now just one point needs to be made: Paul, a Hebrew of Hebrews, knew Greek literature. Again, this is cultural diffusion. As we shall see, Jewish writers during this period recast Sheol bringing it more in line with the notion of Hades recorded in the Greek poets and philosophers. Again, what was once vague and shadowy finds definition in this period. First, we'll take a brief tour of Hades in Greek literature and then see how it compares with Jewish writings from this period.

Hades in Mythology

We are introduced to Hades in book I of Homer's Iliad. The hero Achilles dispatched many souls to the House of Hades, the abode of the dead. It is described as “dark,” “dank” “misty,” and “gloomy.” In the Odyssey, Hermes as the soul-guider (ψυχοπομπός , psychopomp) leads the dead to underworld. Yet Hades was not just a place below the earth, the term refers to the lord of the underworld as well. Homer tells us, “it is only Hades who is utterly ruthless and unyielding--and hence he is of all gods the one most hateful to mankind.” (Iliad IX) He is not evil as such, but fulfills his function – much to the dismay of mortals. The underworld is a bit like the Hotel California. You can check out any time you like, but you can never leave. ^xxi Cerberus made sure of that. ^xxii We also learn much from Hesiod and his works Theogony and Works and Days. Hesiod tells us that Hades is the brother of Zeus and also Poseidon. Hades is “strong..., pitiless in heart, [and] dwells under the earth” (Theogony, 453-491).

In this work we also learn about Tartarus, a primordial deity as well as part of the underworld.

And there, all in their order, are the sources and ends of gloomy earth and misty Tartarus and the unfruitful sea and starry heaven, loathsome and dank, which even the gods abhor. It is a great gulf, ^xxiii and if once a man were within the gates, he would not reach the floor until a whole year had reached its end, but cruel blast upon blast would carry him this way and that. And this marvel is awful even to the deathless gods. (Theogony, 736-744)

It is this great gulf that came to be the prison for most of the Titans when Zeus came into power.

At this time, the fate of all was the same: “Their souls passed beneath the earth and went down into the house of Hades; but their bones, when the skin is rotted about them, crumble away on the dark earth under parching Sirius.” ^xxiv You probably wouldn't want a summer home in the underworld, but it wasn't torturous. The Greek underworld did evolve over time. ^xxv For example, philosophers such as Plato and other groups like the Orphics and Pythagoreans include judgment of the dead. Souls are assigned to one of three realms: Elysium Fields ^xxvi for the virtuous and heroic. The gods cast the very worst sinners into Tartarus for endless punishment. The hoi polloi resided in the house of Hades. These ideas were well developed before Alexander's conquest and they have remained influential for centuries.

Another interesting feature in stories of the Greek underworld is what John J. Collins calls the “otherworldly journey.” He writes, “The motif of otherworldly journey, both ascent to heaven and descent to the netherworld, was widespread in antiquity and is found already in Homer's Odyssey, Book 11.” ^xxvii The term used to describe such journeys is νέκυια (nekyia). It originally referred to a magical rite by which the dead were called up for consultation. It is also the name of the 11^th book of Homer's Odyssey, which involves a visit to the underworld. Later the term was used for all such visits to the underworld. ^xxviii Famous examples of underworld travelers include: the Sumerian Gilgamesh, Odysseus, Heracles, Aeneas, and our good friend Dante.

Let's summarize our very brief tour of Hades in classical mythology:

1. Hades is the abode of the dead under the earth

2. Psychopomp (Hermes) leads the dead to Hades

3. A great gulf, Tartarus

4. Divisions for virtuous and sinners, Elysium Fields and Tartarus

5. Rewards and punishments

6. Underworld is visited in nekyia tales

Hades in Later Jewish Literature

A comparative study of Hades in later Jewish sources betrays the fact that the underworld at this time has more in common with Greek Hades than Hebrew Sheol. ^xxix The following is not an exhaustive list but a summary that highlights the relevant features. A good bit of this information is taken from The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, Vol. 1 by James H. Charlesworth.

In 4 Esdras (First Century AD) the author discusses the fate of the righteous and the wicked when their spirits “shall be separated from their mortal body.” This is the so-called intermediate state prior to the last days. The unrighteous spirtis, we are told, shall “wander about in torments, ever grieving and sad, in seven ways.” (RSV, 7:80) This torment includes seeing the reward laid up for the righteous and their habitation. Likewise, the righteous will see the punishment of the wicked. These features are unaccounted for in the Hebrew bible.

I Enoch (Second Century BC – First Century AD) contains many traces of Greek myth, and Mesopotamian for that matter. In this tale Enoch makes a journey to the underworld, a Jewish nekyia. This is most certainly a motif that has been, to borrow a phrase from Dodd, “taken up and naturalized within Judaism.” The story is Jewish on the surface, but the contact with other sources is evident. The author of Enoch spends several chapters retelling of the Genesis 6 material – the sons of God mating with the daughters of men and their offspring. This obscure section of Genesis is rewritten in great detail. Here, too, what was once vague and shadowy finds definition.

One of the more notable additions is the role of Azazel, a great angel. He is said to have “taught men to make swords, and knives, and shields, and breastplates, and made known to them the metals of the earth and the art of working them...” (8:1) God was not pleased that the great angel had given mankind this knowledge. Enoch proclaimed this against Azazel: “...a severe sentence has gone forth [from God] to put you in bonds.” (13:1) His liver wasn't pecked out, but the similarities between Azazel and Prometheus are hard to miss. Prometheus stole more than fire. In addition to the gifts attributed to Azazel by author of Enoch, the Titan also gave mankind medicine, interpretation of dreams, and enlightenment Prometheus extols his deeds in Aeschylus' play Prometheus Bound:

Beneath the earth, man's hidden blessing, copper, iron, silver, and gold – will anyone claim to have discovered them before I did? No one, I am very sure, who wants to speak truly and to the purpose. One brief word will tell the whole story: all arts that mortals have come from Prometheus. ^xxx

Like Prometheus, Azazel was bound – not to a rock but in a great abyss, as were the Titans. ^xxxi

Other features of I Enoch, include three divisions of the dead: one for the righteous and two for the wicked (Ch. 22:9-10). Here Collins notes that the spring of water and light in the abode of the righteous are Orphic motifs. ^xxxii This is clear evidence that Enoch's geography of the underworld was influenced by Greek traditions. In other words, Hades is not just a loanword from the Greeks. It retains many of its features, one of which is eternal punishment in the middle of the earth (Ch. 26 & 27). Another interesting scene occurs at the end of the work. Here sinners cry in torment as they view the righteous in glory while at the same time the righteous see the punishment of the wicked (Ch. 108:14-15), similar to 4 Ezdras. We will encounter this again.

In II Enoch (First Century AD) the main character makes another nekyia to the underworld. The outlook isn't much better. Enoch sees those who are waiting for the measureless judgment of God. (7:1-3 [J]) It is a place of torture and torment for the ungodly. Other features include fire, darkness, gloom and a river of fire. He closes saying, “To what a small extent they have sinned in this life, but in the eternal life they will suffer forever” (42:3 [J])

The Apocalypse Of Zephaniah (First Century BC – First Century AD) also contains a Jewish nekyia. Punishment is a major theme in this tale, too. Angels take on the role of “psychopomp,” guiding souls to their final destination. Much like Hades himself, there is a great angel called Eremiel who “rules over the abyss and Hades.” (6:15) While making preparations for a river journey in the underworld, the seer's guide exclaims, “Triumph, prevail because you have prevailed and have triumphed over the accuser, and you have come up from Hades and the abyss. You will now cross over the crossing place.” (7:9) On the other side of the crossing place, on the good side, stands Abraham along with other heroes from Israel's past. (9:4-5) It is a Hebrew work, but it incorporates all of the Hadean features we discussed earlier. In other words, this is not Old Testament Sheol.

These stories, especially the Apocalypse Of Zephaniah, share many characteristics with one piece of canonical literature. We would like to examine the following text against the backdrop of the previous readings. Even those who are familiar with this parable should read it now while imagery is still fresh.

The Rich Man and Lazarus

Luke 16:19-31 19 "Now there was a rich man, and he habitually dressed in purple and fine linen, joyously living in splendor every day. 20 "And a poor man named Lazarus was laid at his gate, covered with sores, 21 and longing to be fed with the crumbs which were falling from the rich man's table; besides, even the dogs were coming and licking his sores. 22 "Now the poor man died and was carried away by the angels to Abraham's bosom; and the rich man also died and was buried. 23 "In Hades he lifted up his eyes, being in torment, and saw Abraham far away and Lazarus in his bosom. 24 "And he cried out and said, 'Father Abraham, have mercy on me, and send Lazarus so that he may dip the tip of his finger in water and cool off my tongue, for I am in agony in this flame.' 25 "But Abraham said, 'Child, remember that during your life you received your good things, and likewise Lazarus bad things; but now he is being comforted here, and you are in agony. 26 'And besides all this, between us and you there is a great chasm fixed, so that those who wish to come over from here to you will not be able, and that none may cross over from there to us.' 27 "And he said, 'Then I beg you, father, that you send him to my father's house-- 28 for I have five brothers-- in order that he may warn them, so that they will not also come to this place of torment.' 29 "But Abraham said, 'They have Moses and the Prophets; let them hear them.' 30 "But he said, 'No, father Abraham, but if someone goes to them from the dead, they will repent!' 31 "But he said to him, 'If they do not listen to Moses and the Prophets, they will not be persuaded even if someone rises from the dead.'" (NASU) ^xxxiii

This parable presents a Hellenized view of the underworld in first century Palestine. The motifs in Luke 16:19-31, Enoch, and Zephaniah are an amalgamation of the Hebrew Bible and Greek myth. (Please, no hate mail at this point.) Let's compare:

Now let's compare the Rich Man and Lazarus with our summary of Old Testament Sheol:

An abode of the dead is the only similar feature. Why the disparity? At the beginning of this paper I wrote, “...the meaning of a symbol (e.g., a word, an artifact, a behavior) must be understood by its relationship to other symbols within this historically transmitted framework.” Jesus is communicating inside their cultural “box,” just as Paul did on Mars Hill. Jesus' intent was not to substantiate these notions of the underworld any more than it was Paul's intent to confirm the deity of Zeus! Both used the material to suite their purposes. In Jesus' case, it was to reveal the heart of Israel. ^xxxiv The moral of the story is in verse 31: “If they do not listen to Moses and the Prophets, they will not be persuaded even if someone rises from the dead.” He made his point in culturally relevant terms drawing from various influence that been taken up within Judaism. His use of such imagery should not be understood as tacit consent to the reality of such a place. (This will be addressed again in the addendum.)

Consider Matthew 21:33-46. Jesus tells another parable about a man who planted a vineyard. It had a nice fence and a pit for a winepress – even a watchtower. The landowner rents out his vineyard to some very wicked tenants. They kill everyone he sends to collect his portion of the crop. Finally, he sends his son and they kill him, too. The landowner is enraged. What will he do? “He will utterly destroy those evil men! Then he will lease the vineyard to other tenants who will give him his portion at the harvest.” (Mt 21:41) What are we supposed to get out of this? This vineyard is somewhere in Palestine. We have some clues to its layout. It had a pit for a winepress, a fence and a watchtower. If we put together a team of archaeologists, I'm sure that we could prove the verity of Jesus' story. What do you think? Is that missing the point? The moral is: “For this reason I tell you that the kingdom of God will be taken from you and given to a people who will produce its fruit.” (Matthew 21:43)

Why is Luke 16:19-31 so different? Perhaps it's our natural inclination to want to know what happens beyond the grave. Maybe later Jewish writers couldn't resist filling in the blanks either. In any case, people have only perpetuated the myth of Hades by unnecessarily trying to rescue Jesus from Greek influence. ^xxxv Others simply incorporate the mythical elements into their theology. For example, in the New International Commentary series, Joel Green makes this observation, “This parable is often taken as instruction on 'the intermediate state'.. often with reference to the state of the a disembodied soul; or as a manifestation of Luke's 'individual eschatology'” ^xxxvi Why? Is the parable of the landowner in Matthew 21 to be taken as instruction on how to plant and run a vineyard? The Rich Man and Lazarus is the only parable that receives such treatment. This is not an elucidation on the state of those who had experienced biological death. Jesus used contemporary “modified Greek conceptions” that had been “taken up and naturalized within Judaism” to tell a story. Don't confuse it with history, our favorite form of literature.

If one concedes to the assessment above, then we must continue to ask questions of ourselves. Many of us have transferred these mythic elements to other texts where they do not belong. In light of a culturally sensitive reading of the Rich Man and Lazarus, should we not reexamine the doctrines that may have been influenced by a failure to recognize Jesus' use of myth? When we do, we will find that Old Testament Sheol and New Testament Hades are quite harmonious... Luke 16:19-31 is the odd man out.

Summary: Our Mythology Revisited

Whether explicitly or tacitly, the parable of the Rich Man and Lazarus has been used in support of a doctrine called eternal conscious torment, as found in the realm of Tartarus and the later Jewish writers we surveyed. Basically, God will subject unrighteous souls to the punishments recounted by Spurgeon, Dante, I Enoch, Apoc. of Zephaniah, and Greek myth for all eternity. As Edwards said, these souls are "all the while full of quick sense." In the New Testament, the parabolic underworld of Luke 16:19-31 serves as a model of legitimization. By viewing the mythical elements as “history” rather than “story,” the myth of Hades and its fiendish features have been perpetuated. Now when we come across “unquenchable fire” (Mark 9:43) or “...the smoke of their torment goes up forever and ever” (Rev 14:11) we see it as an extension of the the torment in Luke 16:19-31, i.e., it takes place in the afterlife. Yet similar pronouncements occur in the Old Testament, referring to divine judgment in this world, and many of us do not feel the need for crass literalism. (For examaple: Isa 34:8-17, 66:24; Jer 17:4, 49:43) Duration is the not point. In any regard, eternal conscious torment is foreign to the Hebrew bible - but that hasn't stopped people from trying to find it there.

A gentleman by the name of Mark Driscoll cites the Rich Man and Lazarus in support of this teaching. He takes Jesus to be speaking of “hell” as he summarizes the parable: “Hell is a place of unending torment.” ^xxxvii He clearly reads this back into the Old Testament passages he offers as proof, both of which have been fulfilled in the preterist framework:

The following Old Testament truths about hell are worthy of note:

Hell is unending, conscious, loathsome torment (Is 66.22-24)

Heaven and hell will have people in them forever (Dn 12.1-2) ^xxxviii

For preterists, Jesus places the fulfillment of Daniel 12 in the first century (Matthew 24:15, 21; 25:46). The same is true for Isaiah 66. This chapter concerns the new heavens and earth brought about by the judgment in the preceding chapter. Verse 24 of Isaiah 66 reads, “And they shall go forth and look on the dead bodies of the men that have rebelled against me; for their worm shall not die, their fire shall not be quenched, and they shall be an abhorrence to all flesh.” It's hard to find “Hell is unending, conscious, loathsome torment” in that. To leave the dead unburied dishonored them. This is especially the case after a battle. This language carries over into divine judgment as well. For example:

Jeremiah 7:32-33 “So, watch out!”says the LORD. “The time will soon come when people will no longer call those places Topheth or the Valley of Ben Hinnom. But they will call that valley the Valley of Slaughter and they will bury so many people in Topheth they will run out of room. 33 Then the dead bodies of these people will be left on the ground for the birds and wild animals to eat. And there won't be anyone left to scare them away.” (NET)

The people of Judah acted shamefully and as result they would suffer a shameful death by God's judgment. This is hell on earth. Seriously. This valley, what is called Gehenna in the New Testament, is on the south side of Jerusalem. (Unfortunately, this is usually rendered as hell.) It was in this place where the people of Judah practiced idolatry and sacrificed their children. God says their dead bodies would be stacked high and deep as a result. The valley came to signifying reproach, shame, and defilement. “Here the dead bodies of animals and of criminals, and all kinds of filth, were cast and consumed by fire kept always burning.” ^xxxix In the latter part of Mark 9, Jesus cites Isaiah 66:24 and makes application to Gehenna and the coming of the kingdom. (v. 47) But the coming of the kingdom is tied to the destruction of Jerusalem (Luke 21:20, 31) “Josephus indicates that the same valley was heaped with dead bodies of the Jews following the Roman siege of Jerusalem about A.D. 69-70.” ^xl Yet Mr. Driscoll says of Mark 9:43-48, “Jesus said the eternal torment of Isaiah 66:22-24 is literally coming.” ^xli In his view, this occurs post-history and/or postmortem. Does this mean that people will go to heaven “cripple” or “lame” or with “one eye” if they take Jesus' advice? Perhaps Jesus is simply speaking of the Gehenna outside Jerusalem, like Isaiah and Jeremiah, as there is nothing in the text to suggest that this is postmortem eternity. Proper burial was a big deal. Having one's body tossed into the sea (v. 42) or the valley of Gehenna (v. 43, 45, 47) would be a shameful fate – to oneself and to one's family.

The reader may have noticed that Mr. Driscoll incorporated both of those infamous isms in his assessment of Isaiah 66. He holds the judgment to be future (anachronism). He also filtered the scene through centuries of our cultural “hell” imagery (ethnocentrism). This is an example of how we got from Sheol to hell. Eternal conscious torment may work in a futurist model, but preterism and culturally sensitive reading ^xlii of the text reveal some serious problems.

If we can accept the fact that Jesus incorporated myth into the Rich Man and Lazarus story, then we will be free to jettison the wrongheaded conclusions that have been drawn out of this parable and read into other texts (e.g., Is 66). This is not Bultmann's demythologizing of scripture, but rather being true to the text in its cultural context. Let us instead demythologize the traditions that have been handed down to us – from Homer to Clive Barker. Eternal conscious torment is a relic of futurism, the product of anachronism and ethnocentrism, rooted in Greek myth and a misunderstanding of Jesus' use of it. (Count to 10 and take few deep breaths.) As such, it does not fit in the preterist model. I hope to demonstrated below.

Addendum

Eternal Conscious Torment and Preterism: A Test Case

This addendum assumes the reader is familiar with the preterist framework so for the sake of brevity I will not seek to prove it. This examination will attempt to demonstrate the validity of the claims made in the previous section. Specifically, eternal conscious torment does not fit within the preterist framework. To my knowledge, Mr. Ed Stevens of preterist.org is the only person to commit this position to writing. He uses the phrase “eternal conscious punishment.” ^xliii However, it would appear that “torment” of some degree is implicit in his conception of punishment. ^xliv Whether this is indeed the case will not affect my line of argumentation. It is my hope that the reader will consider the arguments in the spirit intended.

In the following examples, the reader will notice that both Mr. Stevens and Mr. Dricoll base their arguments on the same Old Testament texts, the new heavens and earth of Isaiah and the resurrection of Daniel. Mr. Stevens' treatment of these texts retains traces of futurist eschatology, albeit in an individualized form. He emphasizes biological death over the fulfillment of Old Covenant promises. Of course as a preterist, we assume he recognizes the significance of AD 70. That is, the texts that were once held over for future judgment and eternal hell are now in our past. In light of this, I am puzzled by certain references that can only be categorized as “dual fulfillment” in some sense. Also, as was the case with Mr. Driscoll, the parabolic underworld of the Rich Man and Lazarus serves as an interpretive model. Such an approach impairs our ability to see these other verses clearly – and our misunderstanding is only reinforced by the cultural baggage we bring to the text. In other words, check Clive Barker at the door.

Luke 16:19-31 Revisted

We are told, “Hades was a conscious waiting place for the biologically dead.” ^xlv For Mr. Stevens, the parable of the Rich and Man and Lazarus is a “true to life” ^xlvi depiction of the underworld. He argues, “If the picture Jesus paints of Hades is not correct, then we would have to charge Jesus with misrepresenting reality.” ^xlvii This is the sum of his argument. However, this premise is not necessarily true. Jesus does not claim, or even intimate, that this parable is a “true to life” depiction of the underworld. This is speculation. It is quite plausible that Jesus used “stock” motifs that were popular at the time, such as those found in I Encoch, Apoc. of Zephaniah, etc. Again, Jesus' use of the imagery is not tacit consent to the existence of such a place. The Bible also speaks of “other gods” without denying their existence. These appear in the Old Testament books we classify as history - not in parables. Must we conclude that they exist? We cannot accuse Jesus of “misrepresenting reality” without impugning many Old Testament writers as well. ^xlviii As such, Mr. Stevens' conclusion is shown to be unsound.

Just in case someone skipped down to the addendum without reading the previous sections, let's consider the analogy of Matthew 21:33-46 again. Jesus tells another parable about a man who planted a vineyard. It had a nice fence and a pit for a winepress – even a watchtower. Then, the landowner rents out the vineyard to some wicked tenants. They kill everyone he sends to collect his portion of the crop. Finally, he sends his son and they kill him, too. The landowner is enraged. What will he do? “He will utterly destroy those evil men! Then he will lease the vineyard to other tenants who will give him his portion at the harvest.” (Mt 21:41) What are we supposed to take from this? This vineyard is somewhere in Palestine. We have some clues to its layout. It had a pit for a winepress, a fence and a watchtower. If we put together a team of archaeologists, I'm sure that we could prove the verity of Jesus' story. Is this the point? Perhaps the moral is: “For this reason I tell you that the kingdom of God will be taken from you and given to a people who will produce its fruit.” (Matthew 21:43) Although in exaggerated form, the former is what we are being asked to accept with regard to Luke 16:19-31.

As a whole, Luke 16:19-31 is designed to teach this lesson: “If they do not listen to Moses and the Prophets, they will not be persuaded even if someone rises from the dead.” (Luke 16:31) Yet many of us have viewed other texts through the lens of this parable. This can lead to misunderstanding as much of the scenery in the Rich Man and Lazarus story draws from Greek myth (skippers, please see above). Although his argument for doing so is unsound, it is crucial for the reader to understand that our friend bases his interpretation of other texts on the assumed verity of this mythic, parabolic underworld. He admits to this approach saying, “Nowhere in the New Testament do any of the inspired writers correct this impression that Jesus gives of the Hadean realm [in Luke 16:19-31], but in fact they further augment it and reinforce it, as we shall see...” ^xlix (Do the continued and uncorrected references to “other gods” reinforce the impression that they exist?) Yet when we visit the works of these other writers, we find this reinforcement and augmentation is supplied instead by the expositor. As an example of this, consider his commentary on 1 Peter 3:18-19 and 1 Pet. 4:6.

The Prison of Peter

He provides the text along with bracketed insertions. The emphasis is also his:

For Christ also has once suffered for sins, the just for the unjust, that he might bring us to God, being put to death in the flesh, but quickened by the Spirit: by which also he went and PREACHED UNTO THE SPIRITS imprisoned [in Hades]. ...For the gospel has for this purpose been PREACHED EVEN TO THOSE WHO ARE DEAD [in Hades], that though they [have suffered death] in the flesh as [all] men [have to do], they may live in the spirit according to the will of God. ^l

He then goes on to comment:

The obvious meaning that flies off the face of this text is that when Jesus' body died, His conscious Spirit/Soul descended into the Hadean realm (cf. Eph. 4:9-10 and Acts 2:27,31) where He not only announced the good news of His soon-coming redemption of the righteous from Satan's captivity in the good part of Hades (Paradise), but also the soon-coming doom of the unrighteous in the other part of Hades (Tartarus). ^li

The reader will notice that Mr. Stevens overlays much of the Rich Man and Lazarus material. The text refers to a “prison,” but Mr. Stevens supplies the separation of the righteous and wicked, divisions of the underworld, impending doom (i.e., future punishment) and even Tartarus! ^lii There is nothing in the text to suggest any of this. Even the content of Jesus' message is speculation. The mythic underworld of Luke 16:19-31 is clearly read into this example. Yet these presuppositions are the foundation of his view and so the myth of Hades continues.

Matthew 25:31-46

Mr. Stevens provides additional support for his position on “eternal conscious punishment,” citing Matthew and Revelation. He summarizes:

Hades was a conscious waiting place for the biologically dead. At the AD 70 resurrection, souls in Hades were resurrected out of that waiting state, the righteous into the presence of Christ in His kingdom, and the wicked to eternal conscious punishment “outside” the gates of heaven (Rev. 22:15). Since then, when the righteous die biologically, they immediately receive their new immortal bodies and go directly into heaven to live forever in the presence of God, while the wicked go away to eternal conscious punishment. (see Matt. 25:41, 46 and Rev. 22:15) ^liii

First, notice the reliance upon biological death in the summary above. “Since then...” refers to AD 70. So then, after AD 70, when the wicked die biologically, they go away to eternal conscious punishment. Yet as well will see, Matthew 25:41 and 46 refer to the events surrounding AD 70, not a post-70 individual eschatology. Something is amiss. Let's start with Matthew and then we will move on to Revelation:

Matthew 25:31-46 31 "When the Son of Man comes in his glory and all the angels with him, then he will sit on his glorious throne. 32 All the nations will be assembled before him, and he will separate people one from another like a shepherd separates the sheep from the goats. 33 He will put the sheep on his right and the goats on his left. 34 Then the king will say to those on his right, 'Come, you who are blessed by my Father, inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world. 35 For I was hungry and you gave me food, I was thirsty and you gave me something to drink, I was a stranger and you invited me in, 36 I was naked and you gave me clothing, I was sick and you took care of me, I was in prison and you visited me.' 37 Then the righteous will answer him, 'Lord, when did we see you hungry and feed you, or thirsty and give you something to drink? 38 When did we see you a stranger and invite you in, or naked and clothe you? 39 When did we see you sick or in prison and visit you?' 40 And the king will answer them, 'I tell you the truth, just as you did it for one of the least of these brothers or sisters of mine, you did it for me.' 41 "Then he will say to those on his left, 'Depart from me, you accursed, into the eternal fire that has been prepared for the devil and his angels! 42 For I was hungry and you gave me nothing to eat, I was thirsty and you gave me nothing to drink. 43 I was a stranger and you did not receive me as a guest, naked and you did not clothe me, sick and in prison and you did not visit me.' 44 Then they too will answer, 'Lord, when did we see you hungry or thirsty or a stranger or naked or sick or in prison, and did not give you whatever you needed?' 45 Then he will answer them, 'I tell you the truth, just as you did not do it for one of the least of these, you did not do it for me.' 46 And these will depart into eternal punishment, but the righteous into eternal life." (NET)

From verse 31, we learn that subsequent scene takes place when “the Son of Man comes in his glory” and sits “on his glorious throne.” He separates the people “like a shepherd separates the sheep from the goats.” (25:32) At this time, the righteous “inherit the kingdom” (25:34). This is an allusion to Daniel 7:18 where the holy ones “take possession of the kingdom forever and ever.” Futurists have no problem with this scenario because it all takes place... in the future. However, I believe Mr. Stevens recognizes the AD 70 fulfillment of these passages. Yet he cites this text in support of an individual judgment for the wicked at the point biological death “Since then...” How does one contend for both? Furthermore, how does one arrive at this conclusion? The judgment and the coming of the kingdom in Matthew 25 cannot be separated. They refer to a point in history and the establishment Christ's kingdom, rooted in Old Covenant promises. When the broader context is considered it is difficult to find individual eschatology, rooted instead in biological death. Again, Matthew 25:31-46 concerns the judgment of groups, not individuals. It occurs when the Son comes in His glory, not biological death. Additionally, there is nothing to suggest that “sheep” or “goats” must refer to people who have experienced biological death.

Matthew 25:41 and Eternal Fire

One may ask, “How does 'eternal fire' in Matthew 25:41 fit into this judgment?” It would appear that there is some confusion over this language, specially in declarations of God's judgment. Consider again Isaiah 66:22-24:

“For just as the new heavens and the new earth I am about to make will remain standing before me,” says the LORD, “so your descendants and your name will remain. From one month to the next and from one Sabbath to the next, all people will come to worship me,” says the LORD. “They will go out and observe the corpses of those who rebelled against me, for the maggots that eat them will not die, and the fire that consumes them will not die out. All people will find the sight abhorrent.”

This “eternal fire” is not consuming disembodied spirits, as suggested by Mr. Driscoll above, but the dead bodies of those who had dishonored God. Jesus concurs. In Mark 9:42, he speaks of a shameful fate - being thrown into the sea and weighted down by a millstone. This is obviously not the final resting place of an honorable person. Proper burial was a major concern in antiquity. Such treatment was reserved for only the most vile. Jesus also speaks of being thrown into the valley of Gehenna (43, 45, 47), an equally “this world” fate. This was the grave for the dishonorable dead: unburied on a burning trash heap. Again, Jesus and Isaiah are in agreement. This “unquenchable fire” is not consuming disembodied spirits but those who had rebelled against God in this life. The hyperbole of “eternal fire” or “unquenchable fire” was not uncommon in the context of divine judgment. Such a pronouncement made by Jesus in Matthew 25:41 speaks more to his role as king and his right to divine judgment than to the duration of the punishment. In light of this, consider Isaiah 34:8-10 and the use similar language:

For the LORD has a day of vengeance, A year of recompense for the cause of Zion. Its streams will be turned into pitch, And its loose earth into brimstone, And its land will become burning pitch. It will not be quenched night or day; Its smoke will go up forever. From generation to generation it will be desolate; None will pass through it forever and ever.

Only God has this kind of power – and Jesus claims it for himself! Wow! How big is that? Perpetual “smoke” or “fire” is not the point. A satellite photo of present day Jerusalem would confirm this as the smoke of her burning in AD 70 was also said to be “forever.” ^liv

Matthew 25:46 and Israel's Hope

Now regarding Matthew 25:46 specifically, it should also be noted that this is an allusion to Daniel 12:2. However, Daniel 12:1 refers to the time of “great distress” which Jesus consigns to the events surrounding the destruction of Jerusalem (Matthew 24:21) Paul also borrows from Daniel in Acts 24:14-15, saying, “...before long there is to be a resurrection of both the righteous and the unrighteous” as promised in “the Law and the prophets.” Jesus and Paul are referring to the same event. The judgment scene in Matthew 25:31-46 occurred at specific time and in fulfillment of Old Covenant promises. Even if we should grant Mr. Stevens' definition of eternal conscious punishment for the unrighteous in this resurrection, how does this necessarily carry over to the biological death of wicked individuals after the fact? He wrote, “Since [AD 70]... the wicked go away to eternal conscious punishment.” Are the wicked, at biological death, now raised into a spiritual body only to be consigned to eternal punishment in a lake of fire? The text is silent on such matters so this view is speculation. Regardless, he uses Revelation 22:14-15 to bolster his position here. However, the interpretation offered actually reveals more weaknesses in this view.

Heaven Can Wait

Revelation 22:14-15 reads:

Blessed are those who wash their robes so they can have access to the tree of life and can enter into the city by the gates. Outside are the dogs and the sorcerers and the sexually immoral, and the murderers, and the idolaters and everyone who loves and practices falsehood! (NET)

Mr. Stevens comments:

This is “THE” KILLER TEXT for not only the “soul sleep” doctrine, but Annihilationism and Universalism as well. Notice that this text is talking about the state of the dead AFTER the final (AD 70) resurrection has taken place. The righteous have their new immortal bodies and are INSIDE the heavenly city. The unsaved are still conscious and are OUTSIDE the gates of the heavenly city. The unsaved did not get “immortality” at the resurrection event, yet they are still conscious, so this necessarily implies that “immortality” is not the same thing as “consciousness of the soul.” These unsaved folks are still conscious after the resurrection, even though their bodies have died and they did not receive “immortality” at the resurrection. They remain consciously OUTSIDE of heaven forever after the resurrection event. This not only refutes the “soul sleep” idea, but shows that the wicked do not cease to exist (Annihilationism), nor are they given a “second chance” to repent and accept Christ and “ENTER” into heaven (Universalism). ^lv

The interpretation offered above must make some dubious assumptions. Essentially, the Rich Man and Lazarus scene has been relocated from the underworld to heaven. It's the same story on another set:

1. He assumes this passage takes place in heaven, that is, beyond our realm (but cf. Rev. 21:10).

2. He assumes the New Jerusalem is a city to be inhabited spatially.

3. He assumes the inhabitants have died, biologically, though this is not stated in the text.

4. He assumes the wicked remain outside the city “forever” though this is not stated in the text.

5. He assumes, as we'll see, that those outside are experiencing “eternal conscious punishment.”

6. He assumes these people possess “immortal bodies” though this is not stated in the text.

Mr. Stevens' take fits well in the literalist mold common to futurism, but all of this is unnecessary. Ironically, new Jerusalem usually signifies covenant change in preterist circles, not a city in the sky. Regardless, there is nothing to suggest that the text in question involves only those who have experienced biological death. Additionally, those who are said to be outside are not in torment. Although being outside the city could certainly be understood as a form of punishment, there is nothing to suggest this state is eternal. By reading a few more lines, a different picture comes into focus. Consider Revelation 22 verses 14-17:

Blessed are those who wash their robes so they can have access to the tree of life and can enter into the city by the gates. Outside are the dogs and the sorcerers and the sexually immoral, and the murderers, and the idolaters and everyone who loves and practices falsehood! “I, Jesus, have sent my angel to testify to you about these things for the churches. I am the root and the descendant of David, the bright morning star!” And the Spirit and the bride say, “Come!” And let the one who hears say: “Come!” And let the one who is thirsty come; let the one who wants it take the water of life free of charge. (NET)

Notice the first line. If someone were to “enter into the city by the gates,” where would this person have been previously? Outside, correct? The gates of the city are never closed (Rev. 21:25) which suggests that one may enter in from the “outside,” as expressed in verse 14. The Spirit and the Bride say “Come!” To whom are they beckoning if not those outside of the city? A different scene indeed! This causes a severe problem for Mr. Stevens' view as elsewhere he equates being “outside” with being in “the Lake of Fire (Gehinnom) for eternal conscious punishment 'outside' of heaven (cf. Rev. 22:14-15).” ^lvi

We could suggest that those who are outside the city are being urged to “wash their robes,” to “enter into the city by the gates,” to gain access to the “tree of life” resulting in “the healing of the nations.” (22:2) What a beautiful picture of God's grace and our responsibility to the world. Is this not our charge as members of God's kingdom, rather than “locking people out of the kingdom of heaven”? (Matthew 23:13) Remember, the gates are open.

Summary

Mr. Stevens contends that the mythic, parabolic underworld of the Rich Man and Lazarus must be a “true to life” representation of the ancient underworld. This was shown to be false. Yet the mythic elements of this parable constitute the model by which he decodes passages containing less detail. For example, the “prison” of 1 Peter 3 is recast in the mold of the Hellenized underworld found in I Enoch and the Apocalypse of Zephaniah. His presuppositions about the underworld underlie his exposition of Revelation 22:14-15. He contends for eternal conscious torment, but the picture in scripture is not consistent with his offering. This scene is a beautiful reminder of God's grace and our responsibility in the here and now. It also reveals a serious flaw in Mr. Stevens' approach: he claims the “lake of fire” and “eternal conscious torment” are synonymous with being “outside.” However, those who are outside are being urged to enter in through the eternally open gate.

Regarding, Matthew 25:41 and 46, he must look beyond the historical setting of the judgment presented there and its Old Covenant foundation. Yet there is nothing in the text of Matthew 25 to support the individualized eschatology he proposes. The reference to “eternal fire” in Matthew 25:41 speaks to Jesus' role as king and his right to divine judgment in this life, just as it was used of God in the Hebrew Bile. As such, Matthew 25:31-46 is not addressing the postmortem state of wicked souls in a post-70 world, but rather the divine judgment of a rebellious nation. As argued by Mr. Stevens, eternal conscious torment/punishment does not fit within the preterist framework. Eternal conscious punishment forced him to argue for some form of futurist eschatology. His view focuses too much on an individual's biological death rather than the fulfillment of God's covenant promises. This is a step backwards. Again, the texts that were once held over for future judgment and eternal hell are now in our past. We hope the reader can see the merit of our case and the need for continued reform in this area of preterist eschatology.

P.S.

There are alternatives to eternal conscious torment. I do have some suggestions. First, search out the places where Gehenna ^lvii appears. Consider the horrors that occurred in this valley through Israel's history and the coming judgment Jesus announced to his generation. Is it possible that Jesus refers to this place in the same manner as Jeremiah? Instead of Dante's Inferno, picture the valley outside of Jerusalem and ask yourself: Could Jesus be speaking of this place, rather than the afterlife? The answer may surprise you. Study Hades ^lviii in the New Testament in light of our discussion of Luke 16:19-31. You will find that remaining references lack the detail provided by myth. Resist the urge to give form to what is shadowy. It is here that we find agreement between the New and Old Testaments. Finally, revisit those texts that you once alloted to a future judgment or the hereafter. ^lix Do they still fit? Do they look forward to biological death? A future cataclysm, perhaps? Are they tied to the coming of the kingdom and the fulfillment of God's Old Covenant promises?

This is where I leave it with you, the reader. It is your turn.